COURSE DESCRIPTION
Course Code: BIO 102
Credit Units: 3
General Biology II is a continuation of the foundational biological sciences introduced in General Biology I. This course focuses on the principles of evolution, ecological relationships, and biological diversity. It examines how life originated, how species evolve over time through mechanisms of natural selection and genetic variation, and how organisms interact within ecosystems. Students are introduced to the patterns and processes that shape the diversity of life on Earth, the ecological principles that govern living systems, and the evolutionary relationships among organisms.
The course integrates classical evolutionary theory, modern genetics, environmental biology, population dynamics, community interactions, environmental impact, and conservation biology. It also explores the major domains of life—Bacteria, Archaea, and Eukarya—emphasizing their characteristics, classification, and ecological significance. Students will understand how biodiversity supports the stability of ecosystems, the threats facing global biodiversity, and strategies for conservation.
At the end of this course, students should be able to:
Evolution is the central unifying concept of modern biology. It explains how the vast diversity of life on Earth emerged from common ancestors and how organisms change over generations. This chapter examines the foundations of evolutionary biology: historical perspectives, the evidence for evolution, mechanisms of evolutionary change, and the importance of evolution to biological sciences.
For centuries, humans attempted to explain the origin and diversity of life. Early theories were largely philosophical and not based on scientific evidence. One such belief was fixity of species—the idea that organisms were created in their present form and never changed. Another early misconception was spontaneous generation, which suggested that organisms could arise from non-living matter.
Jean-Baptiste Lamarck (1744–1829) proposed one of the earliest theories of evolution. He believed:
For example, he argued that giraffes developed long necks because their ancestors stretched their necks to reach leaves, and the stretched trait was inherited. Although Lamarck’s mechanism was incorrect, he helped introduce the idea that species change over time.
Modern evolutionary biology was founded by Charles Darwin and Alfred Russel Wallace, who independently proposed the theory of natural selection.
Darwin’s 1859 book On the Origin of Species provided compelling evidence that species evolve by natural selection—a process where genetic variations that enhance survival and reproduction become more common in a population.
Multiple lines of scientific evidence support the theory of evolution:
Fossils show progressive changes in organisms through geological time. Transitional fossils like Archaeopteryx demonstrate links between major groups (birds and reptiles).
Structural similarities among organisms reflect shared ancestry.
Embryos of vertebrates show striking similarities, suggesting a shared origin.
DNA and protein comparisons reveal how closely species are related.
Unique species found on islands (e.g., Galapagos finches) provide evidence of adaptive evolution.
Evolution occurs through changes in gene frequencies in a population over generations. The main mechanisms include:
Individuals with favorable traits survive and reproduce more successfully.
Natural selection can occur in several forms:
Random changes in DNA introduce new genetic variations.
Random changes in allele frequencies, especially in small populations.
Types of drift:
Movement of genes between populations through migration.
Traits that increase mating success become more common.
Speciation occurs when populations diverge into separate species.
Evolution explains:
It forms the foundation of all biological sciences.
Ecology is the study of interactions between organisms and their environment. It examines how populations grow, how species interact, and how energy flows through ecosystems. This chapter focuses on ecological levels of organization, ecological relationships, ecosystem components, population dynamics, and energy flow.
Ecology is structured hierarchically:
Ecosystems consist of:
These components interact to sustain life.
Occurs when organisms vie for the same resources such as food, mates, or territory.
One organism (predator) kills and eats another (prey). Predation influences population size and adaptation.
Long-term relationships between species:
Animals feed on plants; this drives plant defense mechanisms.
Energy flows through ecosystems in a one-way path:
Energy transfer is inefficient: about 10% is passed to the next level. This principle explains why top predators are few in number.
Major nutrient cycles:
These cycles maintain ecosystem stability.
Populations grow in patterns:
Factors include:
Humans influence ecosystems through:
Conservation and sustainable practices are essential for ecosystem health.
This chapter examines the first major branch of biological diversity: microorganisms. Microbes include bacteria, archaea, protists, and fungi. Though often microscopic, they form the foundation of life on Earth, contributing to decomposition, nutrient cycling, biotechnology, and health.
All life belongs to three domains:
Bacteria and archaea are prokaryotes—simple cells lacking membrane-bound organelles. Eukarya includes protists, plants, fungi, and animals.
Bacteria play vital roles:
Once grouped with bacteria, archaea are genetically distinct.
Types include:
Archaea are important for nutrient cycling and biotechnology.
Protists are eukaryotic organisms that are not plants, animals, or fungi.
Protists play roles in aquatic ecosystems and global oxygen production.
This chapter finishes our exploration of biological diversity by examining the plant and animal kingdoms, their evolutionary adaptations, classification, and ecological significance. It concludes with an introduction to conservation biology.
Plants evolved from green algae and adapted to life on land.
Plants provide oxygen, food, habitat, and medicines.
Animals are multicellular eukaryotes that ingest food.
Includes:
Possess a backbone.
Groups:
Animals play key roles in food webs and ecosystem balance.
Conservation biology seeks to protect the planet’s biological heritage.
Evolutionary Biology is the conceptual backbone of biological sciences. It explains how living organisms change over generations, how new species arise, and how the remarkable diversity on Earth came to be. Without evolution, biology would be a collection of unrelated facts. With evolution, all biological facts—from DNA sequences to ecosystems—become interconnected.
Evolution is defined as:
“A change in allele frequencies in a population over generations.”
These lecture notes delve into the foundations, evidence, mechanisms, patterns, and significance of evolution.
Before the 18th century, biological thought was dominated by two ideas:
The belief that species were created exactly as they appear today and are unchanging.
It was believed that all organisms were created by a divine force in recent history.
The belief that living things can arise from non-living matter (e.g., maggots arising from meat).
This idea persisted until scientists like Francesco Redi and Louis Pasteur disproved it.
These early beliefs lacked scientific foundation but shaped human understanding for centuries.
Jean-Baptiste Lamarck was the first scientist to propose a comprehensive theory of evolution (1809).
Use and Disuse
Organs used frequently become stronger; organs not used deteriorate.
Inheritance of Acquired Characteristics
Characteristics acquired during an organism’s lifetime could be passed to offspring.
Giraffes stretching their necks to reach leaves → longer necks inherited by offspring.
Although Lamarck’s mechanism was incorrect (genetic traits, not acquired traits, are inherited), his contribution is significant because:
In 1831, Charles Darwin embarked on a 5-year journey on the HMS Beagle as a naturalist.
He observed:
His famous studies on the Galápagos finches were key to his insights.
Alfred Russel Wallace independently developed a theory of natural selection.
He sent his manuscript to Darwin in 1858, prompting Darwin to publish On the Origin of Species (1859).
Multiple fields of biology provide overwhelming evidence.
Fossils reveal the historical sequence of life. They show:
Structures with similar origin but different functions.
Example:
→ All share a common ancestor.
Different ancestral origins but similar functions.
Example:
→ Not evidence of shared ancestry, but of convergent evolution.
Structures with no apparent function.
Examples:
These are remnants of evolutionary history.
Embryos of different animals show similarities that are not apparent in adults.
Example:
Human, fish, chicken, and frog embryos all have:
This suggests a common ancestry.
DNA comparisons provide some of the strongest evidence.
This shows how closely organisms are related and how long ago they diverged.
The distribution of organisms across continents provides evolutionary evidence.
This supports the idea of common ancestry and migration.
Evolution is not just historical—it’s happening today.
Evolution occurs when genetic variations become more or less common in a population.
Major mechanisms include:
Darwin’s central idea:
Organisms with advantageous traits survive and reproduce more successfully.
Favors one extreme phenotype.
Example:
Peppered moths during the Industrial Revolution.
Favors intermediate phenotype.
Example:
Human birth weight (too small/large = higher mortality).
Favors extreme phenotypes.
Example:
African seedcracker finches with small or large beaks.
A mutation is a change in DNA sequence.
Mutations are the ultimate source of genetic variation.
Types:
Mutations may be:
Only mutations in gametes (sex cells) are inheritable.
Random change in allele frequencies, especially in small populations.
Population drastically reduced by disaster (e.g., flood, disease).
Surviving population may not represent original genetic diversity.
Small group colonizes a new habitat.
Example:
Amish populations showing high frequency of genetic disorders.
Movement of genes between populations through migration.
Increases genetic diversity and reduces differences between populations.
Traits that increase mating success become more common.
Examples:
Sexual selection can produce extreme traits.
Speciation is the formation of new species.
A species is a group of organisms that:
Occurs when populations are geographically isolated.
Barriers include:
Isolation prevents gene flow → populations diverge → new species form.
Occurs without physical barriers.
Mechanisms include:
Rapid evolution of many species from a common ancestor.
Examples:
Adaptive radiation occurs when organisms exploit new ecological niches.
Unrelated organisms develop similar traits due to similar environments.
Examples:
Two species evolve in response to each other.
Examples:
Humans share a common ancestor with apes.
Key evolutionary developments:
Fossil evidence includes Australopithecus, Homo habilis, Homo erectus, and Homo sapiens.
Evolution explains:
Evolution is essential for modern medicine, ecology, and biotechnology.
Understanding evolution at the molecular level provides the strongest evidence that all living organisms share a common ancestry. It also explains how small genetic changes accumulate to produce the vast biological diversity seen today.
DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) is the hereditary material in almost all organisms. It carries genetic instructions for development, functioning, growth, and reproduction.
Mutations—changes in the DNA sequence—are the raw materials for evolution. They occur in several forms:
Most mutations are neutral; some are harmful, and a few are beneficial. Beneficial mutations are preserved by natural selection over time.
Variation within a population is essential for evolution to occur. Sources of genetic variation include:
A population’s gene pool consists of all the alleles present in that population.
Evolution occurs when allele frequencies change from one generation to the next.
The Hardy–Weinberg equation helps determine whether a population is evolving:
p^2 + 2pq + q^2 = 1where:
A population is in Hardy–Weinberg equilibrium only if there is:
These conditions almost never occur naturally, meaning evolution is always happening.
Evolution operates through several powerful mechanisms that shape populations over time.
Natural selection acts on phenotypes that enhance survival or reproduction. Key points:
Types of natural selection:
Random changes in allele frequencies, especially in small populations.
Forms:
Drift reduces genetic variation.
Movement of alleles between populations through migration.
It increases genetic diversity and prevents populations from becoming genetically distinct.
The ultimate source of all new genetic variation. Although rare per gene, mutations accumulate across generations.
Includes inbreeding (mating between relatives) and assortative mating.
It increases homozygosity but does not directly change allele frequencies.
Speciation is the process by which populations evolve to become distinct species.
A species is a group of organisms that:
Pre-zygotic barriers (before fertilization):
Post-zygotic barriers:
Population becomes geographically separated.
Most common form.
Example: Darwin’s finches on different islands.
Occurs without geographical separation.
Common in plants via polyploidy.
Populations are adjacent but have limited contact; environmental differences drive divergence.
Evolution can follow different tempos and patterns.
Evolution occurs slowly through small, accumulated changes.
Long periods of stability interrupted by bursts of rapid change.
One ancestral species evolves into many new species to exploit different ecological niches.
Examples:
Shows transitional forms (e.g., Archaeopteryx between reptiles and birds).
Closely related species show similar embryonic stages.
DNA and protein sequence similarities reveal evolutionary relationships.
Distribution of species across continents supports evolutionary theory.
Example: Marsupials dominate Australia.
Humans evolved from African primate ancestors.
Key genera:
Important milestones:
Chapter 1 provided an in-depth review of evolution—its mechanisms, molecular foundations, historical development, and supporting evidence. Evolution remains one of the most powerful unifying theories in biology.
Ecology is the scientific study of how organisms interact with each other and with their environment. These interactions shape the distribution, abundance, behavior, and evolution of organisms. Ecology provides a framework for understanding natural systems, environmental challenges, and conservation strategies.
This chapter explores:
Ecology is fundamental to solving global issues such as biodiversity loss, climate change, pollution, and resource depletion.
Ecology examines life at multiple hierarchical levels. Each level represents increasing complexity.
An organism is a single living individual—plant, animal, fungus, or microbe.
Organism-level ecology focuses on:
For example, how desert plants conserve water or how birds migrate seasonally.
A population is a group of individuals of the same species living in the same area at the same time.
Population ecology studies:
Example: studying how lion populations change in the Serengeti.
A community consists of all populations in a particular area.
Community ecology examines:
Example: interactions between ants, acacia trees, and herbivores in grasslands.
An ecosystem includes all living organisms (community) plus non-living components (abiotic factors).
Abiotic factors include:
Ecosystem ecology studies:
A biome is a large ecological region characterized by particular climate patterns and major vegetation types.
Examples:
Each biome hosts unique biodiversity and ecological processes.
The biosphere is the global ecosystem—all regions of Earth that support life.
It includes:
The biosphere connects all living organisms into a single, dynamic system.
Ecosystems have two major components: biotic and abiotic.
Biotic components are the living parts of an ecosystem.
Organisms that convert sunlight or chemical energy into food.
Examples:
Producers form the base of all food chains.
Organisms that eat other organisms.
Types:
Break down dead organic matter and release nutrients.
Examples:
Decomposers are essential for nutrient cycling.
Abiotic components determine the physical environment.
Examples include:
Abiotic factors strongly influence which species can thrive in a given ecosystem.
Species interact in various ways that shape community structure.
Competition occurs when organisms attempt to use the same resource.
Two species cannot occupy the same niche indefinitely.
One will outcompete the other.
Species avoid competition by using different parts of the same resource.
Example: different bird species feeding at different heights on a tree.
Predation occurs when a predator kills and consumes prey.
Predators develop:
Prey develop:
Symbiosis is a long-term relationship between two species.
Examples:
Examples:
Examples:
Parasites rarely kill their hosts immediately because they depend on them for survival.
Herbivory involves animals feeding on plants.
Examples:
Plants respond with:
Herbivory drives plant evolution and maintains diversity.
Energy flows in one direction, from the sun to producers to consumers.
Energy cannot be created or destroyed.
Energy transfer is inefficient; energy is lost as heat.
Trophic levels represent feeding positions:
A linear pathway of energy flow.
Example:Grass → Grasshopper → Frog → Snake → Eagle
Interconnected food chains.
More realistic than simple chains.
Three types:
Shows number of organisms.
Shows dry weight of organisms.
Shows energy content at each trophic level.
Only 10% of energy is passed to the next level.
This explains:
Elements move through ecosystems in cycles.
Processes:
Water is essential for life and climate regulation.
Carbon moves through:
Human activities have increased atmospheric CO₂, contributing to climate change.
Nitrogen is required for:
Major processes:
Bacteria play the primary role.
Phosphorus is found in:
It cycles through rocks, soil, water, and organisms.
Phosphorus is often the limiting nutrient in freshwater ecosystems.
Population ecology seeks to understand how and why populations change.
Occurs under ideal conditions.
Results in J-shaped curve.
Example: bacteria.
Growth slows as population approaches carrying capacity (K).
S-shaped curve.
Maximum population size environment can support.
Human activities significantly alter ecosystems.
Ecology helps us:
Ecology is vital for the survival of life on Earth.
Ecology is the biological study of how organisms interact with each other and with their physical environment. It examines the relationships that link living organisms—plants, animals, fungi, and microorganisms—to the air, water, soil, and climate around them. The word “ecology” is derived from the Greek words oikos (house or environment) and logos (study), meaning the study of the home of organisms.
The fundamental idea in ecology is that no organism exists in isolation; all living things depend on one another and their environment for survival. Understanding ecology helps explain how life persists, how populations grow, why ecosystems change, and how human activities impact the natural world.
Ecology operates at multiple organizational levels:
Each level provides a unique perspective on life and its interactions.
An organism is an individual living thing. Its ecological study focuses on how it survives in its environment. This includes:
For example, a camel's humps store fat for energy during long periods without food, while its ability to conserve water helps it thrive in deserts.
A population consists of organisms of the same species living in the same geographical area and capable of interbreeding. Populations have:
Understanding population ecology helps scientists manage wildlife, protect endangered species, and control pests.
A community is a collection of different populations interacting in the same environment. It includes all the organisms—plants, animals, and microorganisms—in a particular area.
Community interactions include:
For example, in a forest community, trees, birds, fungi, and insects coexist and interact in complex ways.
An ecosystem includes all living organisms (biotic components) and their physical environment (abiotic components). Abiotic factors include:
Biotic and abiotic components interact through energy flow and nutrient cycling, forming a functional unit.
A biome is a large regional ecosystem characterized by distinct climate, vegetation, and animal life. Examples include:
Biomes are shaped mainly by temperature and precipitation.
The biosphere is the global sum of all ecosystems. It includes all regions where life exists—land, water, and the atmosphere. It represents the “living skin” of the earth.
Abiotic (non-living) factors critically shape ecosystems and influence species distribution.
Sunlight is the primary source of energy for almost all ecosystems. It influences:
Different organisms have specific temperature ranges for survival. For example:
Temperature also affects metabolic rates.
Water regulates metabolic activities and determines vegetation types.
Examples:
Soil quality affects plant growth.
Factors include:
Long-term climate patterns determine biome distribution, while short-term weather affects daily organism activities.
Energy flows through ecosystems in one direction—from the sun to producers and then to consumers.
Ecosystem organisms are arranged into trophic (feeding) levels:
A food chain illustrates the linear flow of energy. Example:
Grass → Grasshopper → Frog → Snake → Hawk
Food webs show interconnected food chains, providing a realistic view of ecosystem feeding relationships.
Ecological pyramids display the relative amounts of:
at different trophic levels.
Energy pyramids always have a wide base and narrow top because only 10% of energy is transferred from one level to the next; the rest is lost as heat.
This is known as the 10% Law of Energy Transfer.
Nutrients are recycled in ecosystems through biogeochemical cycles.
Processes:
The water cycle maintains freshwater availability.
Carbon moves through:
Human activities like deforestation and burning fossil fuels increase atmospheric CO₂, contributing to climate change.
Nitrogen-fixing bacteria convert atmospheric nitrogen into usable forms. Steps include:
Nitrogen is essential for proteins and nucleic acids.
Unlike other cycles, phosphorus has no atmospheric component.
It cycles between rocks, soil, water, and organisms.
Population ecology examines how populations grow and change.
Occurs when resources are unlimited.
Produces a J-shaped curve.
Formula:
G = rNPopulation growth slows as resources become limited.
Produces an S-shaped curve.
Formula:
G = rN \left(1 - \frac{N}{K}\right)where:
Increase with population density:
Affect populations regardless of density:
Communities are shaped by interactions among organisms.
Occurs when organisms vie for the same resources.
Leads to:
Involves a predator feeding on prey.
Prey develop adaptations like:
Herbivores feed on plants.
Plants respond with spines, toxins, or rapid growth.
Long-term interactions between species:
Mutualism (+/+)
Example: Bees and flowers.
Commensalism (+/0)
Example: Barnacles on whales.
Parasitism (+/–)
Example: Tapeworms in humans.
Succession is a gradual change in community structure over time.
Occurs on bare surfaces (lava rocks, glaciers).
Occurs after disturbances (fire, farming), where soil remains.
Climax community = stable final community (e.g., a mature forest).
Natural resources include:
Ecology helps understand sustainable use by:
Human activities such as mining, pollution, overfishing, and deforestation threaten ecosystem stability.
Human actions increasingly alter natural ecosystems.
Types include:
Consequences:
Leads to:
Caused mainly by increased greenhouse gases (CO₂, methane).
Results in:
Major driver of species extinction.
Overfishing, poaching, and unsustainable harvesting reduce species populations.
Conservation biology aims to protect biodiversity and ecosystem health.
Key strategies:
The ultimate goal is to preserve life-support systems for future generations.
This chapter provided a detailed explanation of ecology, covering:
Ecology emphasizes the interdependence of life and the need for responsible environmental stewardship.
Biological diversity, commonly referred to as biodiversity, is the variety of life existing on Earth—encompassing genes, species, and ecosystems. It includes all plants, animals, microorganisms, and the ecological complexes in which they occur. Biodiversity is the product of over 3.5 billion years of evolution, shaped by natural selection, genetic variation, speciation, migration, and extinction.
The significance of biodiversity cannot be overstated. Life on Earth functions as an interconnected web where every organism, from microscopic bacteria to massive whales and giant trees, plays a role in sustaining natural systems. Biodiversity supports essential ecological processes such as nutrient cycling, pollination, decomposition, climate regulation, and soil formation.
This chapter provides a detailed examination of:
Biodiversity exists at three interconnected levels:
Genetic diversity refers to the variation of genes within a species. It includes:
High genetic diversity increases a species’ ability to adapt to environmental changes, resist diseases, and survive disturbances. For example:
Loss of genetic diversity—often due to inbreeding, habitat fragmentation, or selective breeding—can make species more vulnerable to extinction.
Species diversity refers to the variety of species within a region or ecosystem. It includes:
Habitats such as tropical rainforests and coral reefs exhibit extremely high species diversity. For example:
Species diversity ensures ecosystem stability and resilience.
Ecosystem diversity includes the variety of ecosystems in a region. It encompasses:
Each ecosystem contains unique communities and ecological processes. Ecosystem diversity supports the global balance of energy flow, carbon storage, climate regulation, and nutrient cycling.
Biological classification (taxonomy) provides a systematic way to name, identify, and categorize organisms. Modern taxonomy uses evolutionary relationships (phylogeny) to arrange life forms.
Developed by Carl Linnaeus, this system gives each species a two-part scientific name:
Example: Homo sapiens, Panthera leo, Zea mays
Scientific names are universal and reduce confusion caused by local names.
Organisms are grouped into increasingly specific categories:
A helpful mnemonic:
"Dear King Philip Came Over For Good Soup."
This hierarchy reflects evolutionary relationships, where organisms in the same group share common ancestry.
Advances in molecular biology divided all life into three major domains:
Archaea are genetically distinct from bacteria.
Examples: Escherichia coli, cyanobacteria.
Organisms with true nuclei and membrane-bound organelles. This domain includes:
Eukaryotes are more complex and diverse in structure and function.
Traditionally, living organisms are grouped into five kingdoms:
Examples: Lactobacillus, cyanobacteria.
Examples: Amoeba, Euglena, Paramecium.
Examples: Mushrooms, yeasts, molds.
Fungi are essential decomposers in ecosystems.
Examples: Flowering plants, mosses, ferns, conifers.
Plants are primary producers in most ecosystems.
Examples: Humans, insects, fish, mammals, reptiles.
Animals occupy diverse ecological niches as herbivores, carnivores, and decomposers.
Biodiversity emerged through billions of years of evolutionary processes.
Life likely began through:
Earliest life was simple prokaryotes.
Proposed by Lynn Margulis.
States that:
These bacteria lived symbiotically inside host cells and evolved into organelles.
Adaptive radiation is the rapid evolution of multiple species from a common ancestor, often following:
Examples:
Earth has experienced five major mass extinctions, removing between 50–90% of species each time.
Examples:
After each extinction, surviving species diversify rapidly.
Biodiversity is often examined based on major multicellular groups:
Major plant groups include:
Plants are essential producers, contributing oxygen and food to ecosystems.
Animals are grouped into invertebrates and vertebrates.
Invertebrates
Vertebrates
Animals occupy every ecosystem on Earth.
Essential decomposers that recycle nutrients.
Form mutualistic relationships:
A diverse group including:
They serve as:
Vital roles include:
Biodiversity provides numerous ecological, economic, scientific, and cultural benefits.
Biodiversity contributes to:
Studying biodiversity helps:
Many cultures derive identity, spirituality, and traditions from nature.
Human activities are accelerating biodiversity loss.
Key threats include:
Caused by:
Leads to species displacement and extinction.
Chemicals, plastics, oil spills, and pesticides harm wildlife.
Leads to:
Coral bleaching is a major consequence.
Includes:
Non-native species outcompete native species.
Examples:
Emerging diseases threaten wildlife populations.
Conservation involves protecting species, habitats, and ecosystems to maintain natural diversity.
Protecting species within their natural habitats.
Methods:
Protecting species outside their natural habitats.
Methods:
Examples:
Includes:
Public awareness drives conservation actions.
This chapter explored biodiversity in depth, covering:
Biodiversity sustains life on Earth. Understanding its complexity and value is essential for environmental stewardship and for the survival of future generations.
This chapter explores the full spectrum of biological diversity, from microorganisms to complex multicellular organisms. It explains how scientists classify life forms, the characteristics of the three domains of life, and the ecological importance of major groups such as plants, animals, fungi, protists, bacteria, and archaea. The chapter also highlights evolutionary relationships, phylogenetic trees, and how biodiversity underpins ecosystem functions.
Biological diversity—commonly called biodiversity—refers to the full variety of life on Earth, including:
Life on Earth is estimated to include over 8.7 million species, though only about 2 million have been formally described.
Classification helps in:
Biological classification follows levels from broad to specific:
Domain → Kingdom → Phylum → Class → Order → Family → Genus → Species
Mnemonic: “Dear King Philip Came Over For Good Soup.”
The fundamental unit of classification
Defined as organisms capable of interbreeding to produce fertile offspring
Scientific names use binomial nomenclature (Genus species):
Example: Homo sapiens, Escherichia coli
Modern classification is based on phylogeny—evolutionary history and relationships.
A clade includes a common ancestor and all its descendants.
Cladistics helps identify monophyletic (true evolutionary) groups.
Life is organized into three major domains:
This system was introduced by Carl Woese based on molecular (ribosomal RNA) differences.
Eukaryotic organisms have:
The domain includes four major kingdoms:
Protists are mostly unicellular eukaryotes, diverse in form and nutrition.
Protozoa – animal-like, heterotrophic
Algae – plant-like, photosynthetic
Slime Molds – fungus-like
In-situ conservation
Ex-situ conservation
Legislation and Policies
Public education and awareness
By the end of this chapter, students should understand:
